法(fa)國(guo)歷史(shi)學家勒內·格(ge)魯塞的(de)(de)《草原帝國(guo)》:“明(ming)朝(chao)偉大(da)(da)的(de)(de)永樂(le)皇帝所(suo)(suo)貫(guan)徹的(de)(de)政策,即(ji)為了打(da)倒忽(hu)必(bi)烈家族而(er)扶持年(nian)輕(qing)的(de)(de)發展中(zhong)的(de)(de)衛(wei)拉特勢力,是(shi)在(zai)他死(si)(si)后才(cai)見效(xiao)的(de)(de)。”但明(ming)宣宗放棄戰略機遇,“自仁(ren)宗不勤遠略,宣宗承之。”導致宣德(de)五(wu)年(nian)瓦剌首領脫(tuo)歡(huan)密(mi)遣麥(mai)克零部落迎脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不花,宣德(de)八年(nian)脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不花被脫(tuo)歡(huan)立為大(da)(da)汗(han)。脫(tuo)歡(huan)以脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不花汗(han)的(de)(de)名義(yi)統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)一(yi)安樂(le)王、賢義(yi)王及和(he)寧王所(suo)(suo)部,并聯姻忠順王,逐漸(jian)侵蝕明(ming)朝(chao)邊界(jie),明(ming)英(ying)宗君(jun)臣志在(zai)重新振興。朱祁鎮在(zai)正(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)三(san)年(nian)、正(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)六年(nian)、正(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)九年(nian)、正(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)十(shi)四年(nian)所(suo)(suo)發動的(de)(de)四次(ci)大(da)(da)規模北伐。在(zai)第四次(ci)北伐中(zhong)明(ming)英(ying)宗因情(qing)報(bao)系統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)失靈戰敗被俘。明(ming)英(ying)宗正(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)四年(nian)(1439年(nian))脫(tuo)歡(huan)死(si)(si),其子也先繼(ji)位后,不僅(jin)漠南諸部全被征服(fu),且東脅(xie)朝(chao)鮮,西略哈密(mi),草原大(da)(da)半(ban),盡(jin)為其所(suo)(suo)制(zhi)。也先每年(nian)冬遣人貢馬于明(ming)。起初所(suo)(suo)遣使者(zhe)不過五(wu)十(shi)人,后貪朝(chao)廷厚賞,歲(sui)增至(zhi)二千余人,并屢屢索(suo)要(yao)貴重難得(de)(de)之物(wu)(wu)。稍(shao)不遂,即(ji)制(zhi)造事端,明(ming)廷所(suo)(suo)賜財(cai)物(wu)(wu),不得(de)(de)不歲(sui)有所(suo)(suo)增。
仁(ren)(ren)宣朝(chao)(chao)的治(zhi)邊(bian)(bian)(bian)策略既班(ban)固所(suo)批評的治(zhi)邊(bian)(bian)(bian)觀念,“縉紳之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)儒守(shou)和(he)(he)親,介(jie)胄之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)士言征供。征伐(fa)則民力(li)(li)(li)竭,和(he)(he)親則國威(wei)喪,于(yu)是(shi)(shi)有(you)(you)“守(shou)四(si)夷羈(ji)縻不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)絕,地(di)(di)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)可耕,民不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)可臣(chen)”乾隆(long)認為此(ci)言興臭然!羈(ji)縻之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)道,清(qing)朝(chao)(chao)強調恩威(wei)并(bing)施,撫剿并(bing)重,宣德(de)(de)五年前,蒙古(gu)各部陸續南下緊貼明(ming)(ming)(ming)堡居(ju)住,邊(bian)(bian)(bian)將(jiang)奏報力(li)(li)(li)主嚴(yan)剿,遠離(li)邊(bian)(bian)(bian)地(di)(di)的明(ming)(ming)(ming)宣宗(zong)認為本無漠(mo)北問題,純屬(shu)有(you)(you)心者煽動與邊(bian)(bian)(bian)臣(chen)挑釁。“爾但宜慎邊(bian)(bian)(bian)備(bei),固城池,彼(bi)(bi)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)犯邊(bian)(bian)(bian),毋(wu)擅以(yi)(yi)兵(bing)(bing)逼之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi),果來降(jiang),亦(yi)察其(qi)實,俾之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)入(ru)境,或(huo)(huo)近邊(bian)(bian)(bian)居(ju)止(zhi),或(huo)(huo)打(da)圍,或(huo)(huo)往北行,聽(ting)其(qi)所(suo)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)”宣德(de)(de)八年,海(hai)西女(nv)真(zhen)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)斷受到兀(wu)良哈等(deng)蒙軍(jun)的侵擾(rao)故(gu)向遼東都司求救(jiu),明(ming)(ming)(ming)宣宗(zong)亦(yi)以(yi)(yi)“彼(bi)(bi)來擾(rao)(遼東)則御之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi),不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)擾(rao)亦(yi)勿(wu)侮之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)”。宣宗(zong)的決策給明(ming)(ming)(ming)蒙雙(shuang)方造(zao)成很大(da)影響,彼(bi)(bi)時明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)軍(jun)力(li)(li)(li)尚處于(yu)強盛時期,蒙古(gu)自(zi)思(si)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)能力(li)(li)(li)敵(di)既以(yi)(yi)使臣(chen)名義(yi)遣間諜長居(ju)明(ming)(ming)(ming)邊(bian)(bian)(bian),招攬明(ming)(ming)(ming)將(jiang),避免直接與明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)發(fa)生沖突(tu),專重蠶食東勝,開平,大(da)寧舊地(di)(di),以(yi)(yi)脫脫不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)花(hua)的名義(yi)安穩蒙古(gu)各部,鎮(zhen)撫關西七(qi)衛(wei)、女(nv)真(zhen)衛(wei)所(suo);而明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)麾下女(nv)真(zhen)衛(wei)所(suo)、蒙古(gu)降(jiang)人、漢(han)人將(jiang)領發(fa)現(xian)既然無法同(tong)洪武永樂時代那樣依靠對(dui)(dui)抗(kang)蒙軍(jun)升官,保境,只能選擇與蒙軍(jun)合作發(fa)財,以(yi)(yi)求靜邊(bian)(bian)(bian)。因正統朝(chao)(chao)明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)開始勤于(yu)邊(bian)(bian)(bian)務才(cai)得(de)以(yi)(yi)發(fa)現(xian)仁(ren)(ren)宣朝(chao)(chao)各處邊(bian)(bian)(bian)防漏洞,正統十年十一(yi)月庚寅,明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)朱(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)祁鎮(zhen)接到報告說來朝(chao)(chao)貢的瓦(wa)剌使臣(chen)隨行物(wu)品中攜(xie)帶了大(da)量盔甲(jia)兵(bing)(bing)器(qi)(qi)弓(gong)箭銃(chong)(chong)炮,經過調查發(fa)現(xian)是(shi)(shi)大(da)同(tong)、宣府(fu)等(deng)地(di)(di)走(zou)私商(shang)出(chu)售(shou)。鑒于(yu)此(ci)時明(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)(chao)還(huan)在嚴(yan)格管控火器(qi)(qi)制造(zao)技術于(yu)兩(liang)京,能合法制造(zao)火器(qi)(qi)的邊(bian)(bian)(bian)地(di)(di)衛(wei)所(suo)少(shao)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)又少(shao),顯然走(zou)私商(shang)跟明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)脫不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)了關系。于(yu)是(shi)(shi)朱(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)祁鎮(zhen)給當時大(da)同(tong)總兵(bing)(bing)武進(jin)(jin)伯(bo)朱(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)冕和(he)(he)宣府(fu)總兵(bing)(bing)等(deng)將(jiang)官下了一(yi)道敕令,讓他(ta)們今后嚴(yan)厲(li)打(da)擊走(zou)私行為,若(ruo)再有(you)(you)發(fa)生嚴(yan)懲不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)貸。正統十年十一(yi)月庚寅,明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)朱(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)祁鎮(zhen)敕大(da)同(tong)、宣府(fu)總兵(bing)(bing)等(deng)官,武進(jin)(jin)伯(bo)朱(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)冕等(deng)曰:“瓦(wa)剌使臣(chen)多帶兵(bing)(bing)甲(jia)、弓(gong)矢、銅銃(chong)(chong)諸物(wu),詢其(qi)所(suo)由,皆(jie)大(da)同(tong)、宣府(fu)一(yi)路貪利之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)徒(tu)(明(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)(chao)對(dui)(dui)火器(qi)(qi)有(you)(you)極嚴(yan)格的產地(di)(di)要求及管理規定,明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)所(suo)指貪利之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)徒(tu)是(shi)(shi)誰不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)言自(zi)明(ming)(ming)(ming))私與交易者。爾等(deng)受朕(zhen)委任,防閑弛(chi)慢,自(zi)今其(qi)嚴(yan)加禁約,若(ruo)仍前弛(chi)慢,罪亦(yi)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)宥。”
宣(xuan)德(de)時(shi)期,脫(tuo)歡對(dui)明宣(xuan)宗(zong)非常(chang)恭(gong)順,瓦剌(la)(la)部(bu)(bu)(bu)使(shi)(shi)臣(chen)可以在甘寧等處久住,習(xi)知中國(guo)虛實。正統(tong)初,瓦剌(la)(la)太師(shi)脫(tuo)歡率部(bu)(bu)(bu)擊敗(bai)韃靼阿(a)臺汗、朵(duo)兒只伯,結束了蒙古內部(bu)(bu)(bu)的分裂局面(mian)。正統(tong)四(si)年(1439年),也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)承襲父位(wei),統(tong)領蒙古。脫(tuo)歡與(yu)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)都十分重視與(yu)明廷的朝(chao)(chao)貢(gong)往(wang)來(lai),隨著蒙古內部(bu)(bu)(bu)的相對(dui)穩定,明蒙朝(chao)(chao)貢(gong)體制(zhi)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)進(jin)入了前所未有的繁榮期。明廷對(dui)于蒙古使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)始終本(ben)著“薄(bo)來(lai)厚往(wang)”的政(zheng)(zheng)策(ce)。首先(xian),賞(shang)賜(si)物(wu)品價(jia)值(zhi)要遠遠超出貢(gong)品的價(jia)值(zhi)。一(yi)(yi)般(ban)明廷對(dui)來(lai)朝(chao)(chao)者(zhe)按其(qi)人數及地位(wei)給(gei)賞(shang)。如賜(si)王或太師(shi)一(yi)(yi)人十五(wu)表(biao)(biao)里(li)(li),其(qi)妻(qi)每口八表(biao)(biao)里(li)(li),一(yi)(yi)等頭目八表(biao)(biao)里(li)(li),二等六表(biao)(biao)里(li)(li),三等五(wu)表(biao)(biao)里(li)(li),四(si)等四(si)表(biao)(biao)里(li)(li),外有加(jia)賜(si)。蒙古使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)返程時(shi),明廷也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)會以禮(li)相送(song),啟程前享用朝(chao)(chao)廷的賜(si)宴,回程一(yi)(yi)路差官伴送(song),沿(yan)途備辦飯食(shi),凡(fan)所經(jing)過,茶(cha)飯管待。明廷這(zhe)種(zhong)“薄(bo)來(lai)厚往(wang)”的回賜(si)政(zheng)(zheng)策(ce)對(dui)蒙古使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)的吸引是(shi)很大的,很多蒙古使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)為了得到更的賞(shang)賜(si),成(cheng)倍的擴大使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)人數。如正統(tong)四(si)年(1439年)正月明廷對(dui)蒙古諸多貴族給(gei)予(yu)賞(shang)賜(si)后(hou),十月,脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不花再次(ci)(ci)遣(qian)阿(a)都赤來(lai)朝(chao)(chao),這(zhe)次(ci)(ci)的使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)人數由過去常(chang)見的幾百人猛增(zeng)到千余(yu)人,明廷依然按例給(gei)賞(shang)。明廷對(dui)蒙古使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)人數不加(jia)限制(zhi),凡(fan)來(lai)朝(chao)(chao)者(zhe)必有賞(shang)賜(si),這(zhe)對(dui)某些蒙古頭目的貪欲(yu)是(shi)一(yi)(yi)種(zhong)刺激(ji),也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)為后(hou)來(lai)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)謊報(bao)人數埋下伏筆。
宣(xuan)德十年(nian)(1435年(nian)),明(ming)(ming)宣(xuan)宗(zong)駕崩,皇太子朱(zhu)祁鎮(zhen)即位,即明(ming)(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)。隨(sui)著“一(yi)夫(fu)跳梁”“文(wen)宗(zong)罪人”的(de)三(san)楊(yang)去(qu)世,三(san)楊(yang)歌功(gong)(gong)頌德,粉飾現實的(de)弊端開始突(tu)顯(xian),“自(zi)仁宗(zong)不(bu)勤遠(yuan)略,宣(xuan)宗(zong)承之(zhi)。”經過明(ming)(ming)宣(xuan)宗(zong)巡邏的(de)罷邊主和的(de)政策施行,導(dao)致了明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)(jun)異(yi)域(yu)情(qing)報功(gong)(gong)能的(de)失靈。明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)(jun)從此沒有了洪武永樂兩朝捕獲(huo)精準的(de)有源頭(tou)的(de)異(yi)域(yu)情(qing)報數(shu)據的(de)能力,在只(zhi)有垃圾信(xin)息(xi)的(de)情(qing)況中卻(que)要強行分析時(shi)勢,結果只(zhi)能是(shi)雙方(fang)接戰時(shi)戰敗。當時(shi)明(ming)(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)集團按照(zhao)收(shou)到的(de)情(qing)報分析推演,理(li)論上(shang)明(ming)(ming)朝軍(jun)(jun)隊(dui)前(qian)方(fang)的(de)預定水源地作(zuo)為長(chang)城以內(nei)的(de)地區是(shi)不(bu)應(ying)該(gai)存在敵人的(de)騎兵。整個(ge)部(bu)隊(dui)是(shi)一(yi)個(ge)倒(dao)梯形陣形,目的(de)是(shi)防(fang)備后面(mian)的(de)9萬瓦剌(la)軍(jun)(jun)追上(shang)來(lai)攻(gong)擊(ji)背(bei)后,明(ming)(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)集團誰能想到,錦衣(yi)衛及夜不(bu)收(shou)竟然(ran)沒有捕捉到前(qian)面(mian)(也就是(shi)歸(gui)途的(de)大(da)門(men)口上(shang))居然(ran)有3萬瓦剌(la)軍(jun)(jun)已(yi)經按口袋陣蹲守伏(fu)擊(ji)至少(shao)半個(ge)月。搞明(ming)(ming)白瓦剌(la)軍(jun)(jun)不(bu)是(shi)背(bei)后一(yi)支,而是(shi)前(qian)后兩只(zhi),土木堡(bao)之(zhi)變的(de)問(wen)題(ti)就迎刃而解(jie)了。但長(chang)期史書上(shang)都不(bu)提伏(fu)擊(ji)的(de)那3萬(一(yi)說兩萬)瓦剌(la)伏(fu)馬。
加上(shang)明(ming)廷(ting)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主要視線(xian)在南(nan)(nan)方麓(lu)川及(ji)再下(xia)南(nan)(nan)洋,朱(zhu)祁(qi)鎮(zhen)在正(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)三(san)(san)(san)年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)(亦集乃之(zhi)(zhi)戰(zhan))、正(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)六年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)(豐(feng)州之(zhi)(zhi)戰(zhan))、正(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)九(jiu)年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)(以(yi)(yi)克列蘇之(zhi)(zhi)戰(zhan))所發動(dong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)三(san)(san)(san)次(ci)大規(gui)模(mo)北伐(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主將,除了楊、石等人(ren)外大多投入南(nan)(nan)征(zheng)隊伍之(zhi)(zhi)中(zhong)。明(ming)正(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)十一年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)(1446年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian))冬天,也先(xian)攻打(da)兀良(liang)哈,派遣使臣(chen)(chen)抵達明(ming)朝邊(bian)鎮(zhen)大同乞糧,并(bing)且請(qing)求會(hui)見(jian)守(shou)備太(tai)監(jian)郭敬。朱(zhu)祁(qi)鎮(zhen)敕令郭敬不要接見(jian)也先(xian),也不要給他(ta)糧食。明(ming)正(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)十二(er)年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)(1447年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)),也先(xian)再次(ci)致書明(ming)朝宣府(fu)守(shou)將楊洪。楊洪奏報(bao)朝廷(ting)之(zhi)(zhi)后,朱(zhu)祁(qi)鎮(zhen)要他(ta)禮(li)遇瓦(wa)剌(la)使臣(chen)(chen)。面(mian)對瓦(wa)剌(la)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)蠢蠢欲(yu)動(dong),明(ming)朝北方的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)禍亂(luan)已(yi)近在眼前(qian),但(dan)是英宗君臣(chen)(chen)視而不見(jian),卻發動(dong)了對麓(lu)川的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)第四(si)次(ci)征(zheng)討(tao)。正(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)統(tong)十三(san)(san)(san)年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)(1448年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian))三(san)(san)(san)月,思機發再次(ci)掠奪孟(meng)養,明(ming)朝屢次(ci)諭令仍不從。英宗復命靖遠伯王驥提(ti)督(du)(du)軍務,都督(du)(du)宮聚為總(zong)兵,張(zhang)軏(yue)、田禮(li)為左右(you)副(fu)總(zong)兵,方瑛、張(zhang)銳為左右(you)參將,率南(nan)(nan)京、云南(nan)(nan)、湖(hu)廣、四(si)川、貴州土漢軍十三(san)(san)(san)萬(wan)討(tao)伐(fa)麓(lu)川。明(ming)朝征(zheng)伐(fa)麓(lu)川,明(ming)朝調動(dong)了大量人(ren)力物力,戰(zhan)爭造成了重(zhong)大的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)員(yuan)傷亡,連年(nian)(nian)(nian)(nian)征(zheng)戰(zhan),仍未徹底平息叛亂(luan),最終以(yi)(yi)盟(meng)約形式結束;期間(jian)連續發動(dong)數十萬(wan)人(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)進攻,致使大軍疲憊、國庫虧空(kong),對北面(mian)蒙(meng)古(gu)瓦(wa)剌(la)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)防(fang)御(yu)空(kong)虛(xu)。郭琰的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)下(xia)番(fan)海船造完后沿海又出現大規(gui)模(mo)民變,后因張(zhang)昭反對再下(xia)西(xi)洋逐罷。
也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)通過在明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝居住的(de)(de)瓦剌(la)(la)使(shi)(shi)臣及(ji)(ji)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)庭內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)部高(gao)中(zhong)低(di)層內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)奸(jian),大(da)(da)(da)(da)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)邊防(fang)虛實(shi)(shi)動靜皆(jie)已知曉,進攻(gong)時間節點選的(de)(de)非常合適。其中(zhong)就有(you)達(da)官賽因(yin)(yin)不(bu)花、四朝元老御監(jian)(jian)郭敬的(de)(de)家人把伯、義州衛軍(jun)士王(wang)文、李讓(rang)、施帶兒(er)(er)、小田兒(er)(er)、加(jia)失領真、大(da)(da)(da)(da)同指揮李讓(rang)幼女為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)弟大(da)(da)(da)(da)同王(wang)兒(er)(er)婦,也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)許以(yi)知院,又(you)密(mi)受也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)賞馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)四匹,被虜婦女二(er)口。將各城指揮姓名盡報與(yu)也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)。跛(bo)(bo)兒(er)(er)干(gan),本歸(gui)降蒙古(gu)人,任御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)(jian)少(shao)監(jian)(jian)。明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)庭給事宮禁(jin)數十(shi)年,及(ji)(ji)土(tu)木之敗(bai)即(ji)助(zhu)虜反(fan)攻(gong)射內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)使(shi)(shi)黎(li)定(ding),既又(you)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)虜使(shi)(shi)來有(you)所(suo)(suo)需(xu)索(suo),明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝命執而誅(zhu)(zhu)之。正統(tong)十(shi)四年十(shi)月二(er)日御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)(jian)少(shao)監(jian)(jian)跛(bo)(bo)兒(er)(er)干(gan)伏(fu)誅(zhu)(zhu)。根據《歷(li)代符(fu)牌圖錄》記載(zai),南西伯利亞(ya)出(chu)(chu)土(tu)的(de)(de)腰牌屬于明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝的(de)(de)御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)(jian)。御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)(jian)是(shi)(shi)統(tong)領禁(jin)軍(jun)的(de)(de),是(shi)(shi)屬于武職,由(you)于御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)(jian)十(shi)分重(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao),其腰牌也(ye)十(shi)分重(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao),無腰牌者一律(lv)重(zhong)(zhong)罪,擅自把腰牌借(jie)給別(bie)人者借(jie)者和(he)借(jie)予者同罪,所(suo)(suo)以(yi)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)部出(chu)(chu)現了內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)奸(jian)。《明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)英(ying)(ying)宗(zong)(zong)實(shi)(shi)錄》:“跛(bo)(bo)兒(er)(er)干(gan)及(ji)(ji)土(tu)木之敗(bai),即(ji)助(zhu)虜反(fan)攻(gong),射內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)使(shi)(shi)黎(li)定(ding)。”《北(bei)使(shi)(shi)錄》記載(zai):“也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)人馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)四圍(wei),大(da)(da)(da)(da)戰,大(da)(da)(da)(da)軍(jun)倒戈,自相蹂踐。”這兩條記載(zai)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)確表示了當時明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)的(de)(de)確有(you)大(da)(da)(da)(da)軍(jun)叛亂,前者更是(shi)(shi)點名跛(bo)(bo)兒(er)(er)干(gan)發動了叛亂。跛(bo)(bo)兒(er)(er)干(gan)可是(shi)(shi)御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)(jian)的(de)(de)人,這也(ye)是(shi)(shi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)什(shen)么瓦剌(la)(la)每次都能洞悉明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)的(de)(de)去向,且為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)什(shen)么大(da)(da)(da)(da)軍(jun)一觸即(ji)潰的(de)(de)原因(yin)(yin)。也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)又(you)重(zhong)(zhong)金賄(hui)賂(lu)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)英(ying)(ying)宗(zong)(zong)的(de)(de)翻(fan)譯(yi)官員馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)云、馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)青,探聽明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)的(de)(de)虛實(shi)(shi),提出(chu)(chu)與(yu)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)皇(huang)室通婚的(de)(de)要(yao)(yao)求,因(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)欲與(yu)黃金家族比高(gao),所(suo)(suo)以(yi)想為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)兒(er)(er)子求娶(qu)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝公主夸耀(yao)蒙古(gu)群雄之中(zhong),明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝達(da)官千戶馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)云(這人在明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)史研究中(zhong)極重(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao),曾任明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)英(ying)(ying)宗(zong)(zong)下(xia)(xia)西洋和(he)番指揮、撒(sa)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)兒(er)(er)罕(han)公使(shi)(shi))、馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)青、吳良等私下(xia)(xia)許諾,并說還要(yao)(yao)送也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)美女。但因(yin)(yin)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝重(zhong)(zhong)開(kai)大(da)(da)(da)(da)宋天的(de)(de)意(yi)識形態的(de)(de)關系,明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝翻(fan)譯(yi)官馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)云、馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)青事后未(wei)敢(gan)將此事奏報明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)。后也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)貢使(shi)(shi)至稱:“此聘禮也(ye)(供馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)迎(ying)娶(qu)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝公主聘禮),”明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)答(da)復:“詔無許姻(yin)意(yi)(沒有(you)許婚這回(hui)事)”。也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)以(yi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)通婚成(cheng)功(gong),方才遣使(shi)(shi)貢馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)作為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)聘禮,結果(guo)大(da)(da)(da)(da)失顏面(mian)。事后也(ye)先(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)以(yi)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝刁難貢使(shi)(shi)并撕毀婚約及(ji)(ji)隨意(yi)克(ke)減歲賜為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)由(you),集結軍(jun)隊出(chu)(chu)兵大(da)(da)(da)(da)舉進攻(gong)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝邊境,對內(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)(nei)則稱要(yao)(yao)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝予他大(da)(da)(da)(da)都。
明正統十四(si)年(nian)(1449年(nian))二月,瓦剌太(tai)師也(ye)先遣使2000余(yu)人貢馬,詐稱(cheng)3000人,向明朝中(zhong)央邀賞,由(you)于宦官(guan)王振不肯多給(gei)賞賜,按實際(ji)人數給(gei)賞,并減去馬價(jia)五(wu)分(fen)之四(si),沒能(neng)滿足他們的(de)要(yao)求,就制(zhi)造釁端。遂于這年(nian)七月,統率(lv)各部(bu),分(fen)四(si)路(lu)大舉(ju)向內(nei)地騷擾。東(dong)(dong)路(lu),由(you)脫脫不花與兀良(liang)哈(ha)部(bu)攻(gong)遼東(dong)(dong);西路(lu),派別將進攻(gong)甘(gan)州(甘(gan)肅張掖(ye));中(zhong)路(lu)為進攻(gong)的(de)重點,又分(fen)為兩支(zhi)(zhi),一(yi)支(zhi)(zhi)由(you)阿(a)剌知院(yuan)所統率(lv),直攻(gong)宣府圍赤城(cheng),另一(yi)支(zhi)(zhi)由(you)也(ye)先親率(lv)進攻(gong)大同。也(ye)先進攻(gong)大同的(de)一(yi)路(lu),“兵(bing)鋒甚銳,大同兵(bing)失利(li),塞外(wai)城(cheng)堡,所至(zhi)陷沒”。大同參將吳(wu)浩(hao)戰死于貓兒莊。明遣駙馬都尉井源等(deng)四(si)將各率(lv)兵(bing)萬人御敵。
當時明英宗寵信宦(huan)官(guan)王振。張太皇太后病逝,元老三楊或死(si)或貶,王振更加擅作威福,無(wu)所忌憚,竟盜走明太祖朱元璋所立禁內(nei)臣(chen)干預(yu)朝政所立之鐵碑。從(cong)此,大權獨攬,廣植(zhi)私黨(dang),使其侄(zhi)王山為錦衣(yi)(yi)衛指揮,王林為錦衣(yi)(yi)衛僉事,其黨(dang)羽個個升(sheng)官(guan)進(jin)祿,飛(fei)黃騰(teng)達。他又排斥異(yi)己,陷害忠良。
大同前線的敗(bai)報(bao)不斷(duan)傳到北(bei)京,明英(ying)宗(zong)朱祁鎮在王(wang)振的煽惑(huo)與(yu)挾持下,準(zhun)備親(qin)征(zheng)。兵部尚書鄺埜和侍郎于謙“力言六(liu)師不宜(yi)輕出(chu)”,吏(li)部尚書王(wang)直率(lv)群臣上疏勸(quan)諫,但明英(ying)宗(zong)偏信王(wang)振,一意(yi)孤行(xing),執意(yi)親(qin)征(zheng)。
正統(tong)十四年(1449年)7月16日,英宗命其弟(di)郕(cheng)王(wang)(wang)朱祁鈺(yu)留守北京,然后和(he)王(wang)(wang)振帶領(ling)約25萬(wan)大軍(jun)(號稱50萬(wan))從北京出發。英國公張(zhang)(zhang)輔、成國公朱勇、兵部(bu)尚(shang)書(shu)鄺埜、戶部(bu)尚(shang)書(shu)王(wang)(wang)佐、內(nei)閣學(xue)士曹鼐、張(zhang)(zhang)益等文武百官護駕(jia)從征。
由于組織不當,一切軍政(zheng)事(shi)務皆由王振(zhen)專斷,即(ji)使是成國(guo)公(gong)朱勇在王振(zhen)面前也要(yao)膝(xi)行而前;戶部尚書王佐請皇(huang)帝回軍,王振(zhen)就命(ming)其跪在草叢里,直到天黑才能(neng)起來。隨征的文武大臣卻不使參預軍政(zheng)事(shi)務,軍內自相驚亂。
正(zheng)(zheng)統十四(si)(si)年(nian)(1449年(nian))七月十九日(ri),英宗(zong)(zong)出居庸關,過(guo)懷來,至(zhi)宣府(fu)。正(zheng)(zheng)統十四(si)(si)年(nian)(1449年(nian))八月一日(ri),明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)進到(dao)大(da)同。未交鋒,鎮守(shou)太監郭敬報告也先為誘明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)深入,主動北(bei)撤,王振(zhen)看到(dao)瓦剌軍(jun)北(bei)撤,仍堅持北(bei)進,后聞前方慘敗,則驚慌撤退。本(ben)欲使英宗(zong)(zong)于退兵(bing)(bing)時經(jing)過(guo)其家鄉蔚(yu)州“駕幸其第(di)”,顯示威(wei)風;又怕大(da)軍(jun)損壞(huai)他(ta)的田園莊稼(jia),故(gu)行軍(jun)路線屢變,導(dao)致(zhi)士兵(bing)(bing)疲(pi)憊不堪。至(zhi)宣府(fu),瓦剌大(da)隊(dui)追兵(bing)(bing)追襲而來,明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)3萬騎兵(bing)(bing)被“殺掠殆(dai)盡”。正(zheng)(zheng)統十四(si)(si)年(nian)(1449年(nian))八月十三日(ri),明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)狼狽(bei)逃(tao)到(dao)土木堡,而瓦剌軍(jun)緊(jin)追不舍。
兵(bing)部尚書鄺埜一再要求(qiu)馳入(ru)居(ju)庸關以保(bao)證安全,但王振不準。土木(mu)堡地勢高,無(wu)泉缺水(shui),土木(mu)堡之南十五里處有河,被(bei)瓦(wa)剌軍占據(ju),將(jiang)士(shi)饑渴(ke)難耐,挖井(jing)二丈仍無(wu)水(shui)。隔日(ri)瓦(wa)剌軍隊包圍土木(mu)堡。也先遣使詐和,并主動撤離,以麻痹明軍。
明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)不疑有詐,遣曹(cao)鼐起草詔書(shu)(shu)(shu)。王(wang)振(zhen)(zhen)下令(ling)移營就水,當明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)大(da)(da)軍(jun)移動時,饑渴(ke)難(nan)忍的軍(jun)士一(yi)哄而起,奔向河邊,亂成一(yi)團(tuan)。瓦剌(la)軍(jun)伏兵四(si)起,趁機發動總攻,倉(cang)促應戰(zhan)(zhan)的明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)被打得大(da)(da)敗(bai)。明(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)二十余萬人有三(san)分之(zhi)一(yi)戰(zhan)(zhan)死,中(zhong)傷居半。太(tai)師英國公張輔,泰寧(ning)侯陳(chen)贏,駙馬(ma)都(dou)(dou)督井源,平鄉伯陳(chen)懷,襄(xiang)城伯李珍,遂安伯陳(chen)塤,修武伯沈榮,都(dou)(dou)督梁(liang)成、王(wang)貴,戶(hu)部(bu)尚書(shu)(shu)(shu)王(wang)佐(zuo),兵部(bu)尚書(shu)(shu)(shu)鄺(kuang)埜,吏部(bu)左(zuo)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)兼(jian)翰林院(yuan)學(xue)士曹(cao)鼐,刑(xing)部(bu)右(you)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)丁鉉,工部(bu)右(you)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)主(zhu)(zhu)永(yong)和,都(dou)(dou)察院(yuan)右(you)副都(dou)(dou)御史鄧栗,翰林院(yuan)侍(shi)(shi)讀(du)學(xue)士張益,通政司左(zuo)通政龔全安,太(tai)常寺少卿(qing)黃(huang)養正(zheng)、戴慶祖、王(wang)一(yi)居,太(tai)仆寺少卿(qing)劉容,尚寶少卿(qing)凌(ling)鑄,給事中(zhong)包(bao)良(liang)佐(zuo)、姚銑、鮑輝,中(zhong)書(shu)(shu)(shu)舍人俞(yu)(yu)拱、潘澄、錢禺(yu),監(jian)察御史張洪、黃(huang)裳、魏(wei)貞、夏誠(cheng)、申祐、尹(yin)竑、童(tong)存德、孫(sun)慶、林祥鳳(feng),郎(lang)中(zhong)齊汪(wang)、馮學(xue)明(ming)(ming)(ming),員(yuan)外郎(lang)王(wang)健、程(cheng)思溫、程(cheng)式、逯端,主(zhu)(zhu)事俞(yu)(yu)鑒、張塘、鄭瑄(xuan)、大(da)(da)理寺副馬(ma)豫,行人司正(zheng)尹(yin)昌(chang),行人羅如墉,欽天監(jian)夏官(guan)正(zheng)劉信,序班李恭、石玉這五十二名跟(gen)隨明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)遠征的群臣皆死于混戰(zhan)(zhan)中(zhong)。明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)的護衛(wei)將軍(jun)樊(fan)忠憤(fen)怒至(zhi)極,掄起鐵錘砸碎了(le)王(wang)振(zhen)(zhen)的腦袋。(但據明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)自己的回憶王(wang)振(zhen)(zhen)也是(shi)被瓦剌(la)軍(jun)殺死的)樊(fan)忠不久亦戰(zhan)(zhan)死。只(zhi)有大(da)(da)理寺右(you)寺丞(cheng)蕭維楨(zhen)、禮部(bu)左(zuo)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)楊善、文(wen)選郎(lang)中(zhong)李賢等數人僥幸逃出。明(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)看(kan)到(dao)突(tu)圍無望,索(suo)性跳下馬(ma)來,面向南(nan)方(fang),盤膝而坐,等待就縛(fu)。
不(bu)一會兒,瓦刺兵(bing)沖上來,一個士兵(bing)上前要(yao)剝取明英(ying)宗的(de)衣甲(jia),一看他(ta)的(de)衣甲(jia)與眾不(bu)同,心(xin)知不(bu)是一般人物,便推(tui)擁著(zhu)他(ta)去見也先(xian)之弟賽(sai)刊(kan)王(wang)(wang),賽(sai)刊(kan)王(wang)(wang)在問(wen)明英(ying)宗時,明英(ying)宗反(fan)問(wen)道:“你(ni)是誰?是也先(xian),還是伯顏(yan)帖木(mu)兒,或者是賽(sai)刊(kan)王(wang)(wang)。”賽(sai)刊(kan)王(wang)(wang)感到(dao)明英(ying)宗說(shuo)話的(de)口氣很大,立(li)即報告也先(xian),也先(xian)立(li)即去向他(ta)請安行(xing)君臣禮(li),獻上各種野味美食。衛拉特還繳獲馬匹二(er)十萬頭及無數衣甲(jia)器(qi)械(xie)輜重。
政治
土木(mu)之(zhi)變致(zhi)使明英(ying)宗被(bei)(bei)俘(fu);四朝老(lao)臣(chen)張輔、駙馬井(jing)源、兵部尚書鄺埜(ye)、戶部尚書王(wang)佐、侍郎丁銘、王(wang)永和以(yi)及內閣成員曹鼎(ding)、張益(yi)等五十余名隨行(xing)出(chu)征的(de)文(wen)官武將戰死(si);財產損失不計其數;明成祖朱棣留(liu)下的(de)五十萬(wan)大(da)(da)軍(jun)(jun)全軍(jun)(jun)覆(fu)沒,最為精銳的(de)三大(da)(da)營部隊亦隨之(zhi)毀于一旦(dan),軍(jun)(jun)火武器研發亦被(bei)(bei)大(da)(da)大(da)(da)阻礙(ai);京城的(de)門戶亦已洞開;明英(ying)宗復位后(hou)更(geng)是殺了以(yi)于謙為首等眾多權臣(chen),導致(zhi)明朝軍(jun)(jun)政在土木(mu)之(zhi)變之(zhi)后(hou)第二次(ci)斷層。
隨著開國(guo)武人勛(xun)貴集團和靖(jing)難功臣集團在土木(mu)堡之變被消滅殆盡,皇帝(di)只能通過內廷(ting)的宦(huan)官(guan)來制衡文(wen)官(guan)集團以貫徹自(zi)己的意志和整(zheng)個(ge)國(guo)家(jia)的意志,文(wen)武大臣和君主離心離德,國(guo)勢日蹙。
明(ming)英宗南歸后,以及皇儲問(wen)題,景泰、天順(shun)年間,明(ming)朝皇權斗爭愈(yu)發激(ji)烈,朝臣為了(le)保(bao)護(hu)自身利益,左右搖擺、嫁禍誣陷,斗爭也更加殘酷。
此期(qi)(qi)間的內(nei)(nei)閣(ge)也并未發(fa)(fa)揮(hui)(hui)出(chu)它的作(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)。正統前期(qi)(qi)政歸內(nei)(nei)閣(ge),三(san)楊(yang)為(wei)軸(zhou),制度也漸趨(qu)完善,但(dan)無(wu)法阻止自(zi)身(shen)實際作(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)的逐(zhu)漸下降。土木事變發(fa)(fa)生前后,內(nei)(nei)閣(ge)作(zuo)(zuo)為(wei)與皇帝(di)最(zui)為(wei)親密的輔(fu)政機構(gou),未能(neng)發(fa)(fa)揮(hui)(hui)出(chu)其應有的作(zuo)(zuo)用(yong),既未阻止先期(qi)(qi)的王振擅權,在后期(qi)(qi)的北京保衛戰和景泰、天順的風云交替中也毫無(wu)建樹,表(biao)現(xian)十分羸弱(ruo),于(yu)軍(jun)國大(da)事退避三(san)舍(she)。這段(duan)時期(qi)(qi),內(nei)(nei)閣(ge)只能(neng)尷尬地任(ren)(ren)由宦官(guan)專(zhuan)(zhuan)政,或(huo)被皇帝(di)輕視(shi)而任(ren)(ren)用(yong)于(yu)謙,傾心委(wei)政,以(yi)至(zhi)朝(chao)臣不滿,上書稱于(yu)謙太過專(zhuan)(zhuan)權,請求六部大(da)事須與內(nei)(nei)閣(ge)一同奏報施行,或(huo)是任(ren)(ren)由石(shi)亨、曹吉祥等奸佞決定擺(bai)布。
軍事
土木堡之變(bian)后,明朝(chao)精銳軍隊損失殆(dai)盡(jin),這必然會引起相關(guan)的(de)政策、制(zhi)(zhi)度的(de)重大變(bian)化(hua),突出(chu)表現在邊(bian)防形(xing)勢和軍事制(zhi)(zhi)度的(de)改變(bian)上。盡(jin)管有景(jing)泰(tai)帝的(de)改革,但也達不到明朝(chao)頂峰(feng)時的(de)狀(zhuang)態。邊(bian)防政策由(you)積極進攻轉變(bian)為被動防守,最終形(xing)成了著名(ming)的(de)九邊(bian)防御體(ti)系。軍事制(zhi)(zhi)度上則是募兵制(zhi)(zhi)的(de)興起。
土(tu)木之變是明軍不(bu)戰自潰。北(bei)京(jing)圍(wei)城不(bu)下,則(ze)蒙(meng)古內(nei)部矛盾也起(qi)了重要作用。不(bu)久,蒙(meng)古各(ge)部終于(yu)兵戎(rong)相見,脫脫不(bu)花汗敗亡。也先稱帝(di),但他無法解決造成封建割據的經(jing)濟(ji)的和政治的矛盾,而為人又心胸狹窄,荒于(yu)酒色,終于(yu)兵敗被(bei)殺。
也有大批的蒙古(gu)人不(bu)愿在漠北(bei)(bei)過艱苦(ku)日子,借此(ci)機會(hui)轉而(er)投(tou)靠明朝,定居北(bei)(bei)京及北(bei)(bei)直(zhi)隸各(ge)地。一些內(nei)地的漢人由于痛恨明朝暴政而(er)投(tou)降也先,去了(le)蒙古(gu)高(gao)原。
1449年9月1日的土木之(zhi)變,是(shi)明(ming)朝中央軍(jun)隊第一次發生的一場失敗(bai)戰役。除(chu)了軍(jun)事指揮錯誤的直(zhi)接原(yuan)因(yin)外(wai),與長期以(yi)來(lai)明(ming)朝北方(fang)邊防(fang)被破壞有密切關系,是(shi)北方(fang)邊防(fang)廢弛的必然結果(guo)。而朝中的士(shi)大夫為防(fang)止(zhi)明(ming)朝重(zhong)蹈北宋(song)滅(mie)亡覆轍起到了重(zhong)要的作用(yong)。
李(li)實:中國人(ren)(ren)民多如草(cao)芥,土木失利,出于(yu)(yu)不意,未(wei)可以為常理。有(you)(you)盛(sheng)有(you)(you)衰(shuai),有(you)(you)隆有(you)(you)替。把禿(tu):亦(yi)非(fei)我每勇力,乃天的氣候。楊善(shan):太平日久,將卒相安,況(kuang)此(ci)行只(zhi)是扈(hu)從隨駕,初無號令對敵。因四方(fang)無虞,只(zhi)修營(ying)寺宇而(er)已,何(he)曾操習(xi)?被爾虜兵陡然沖突,如何(he)不走?”李(li)賢:“自古胡人(ren)(ren)得(de)中國之利未(wei)有(you)(you)盛(sheng)于(yu)(yu)此(ci)舉者,胡人(ren)(ren)亦(yi)自謂出于(yu)(yu)望外,況(kuang)乘輿為其(qi)(qi)所獲,其(qi)(qi)偶然哉?”